A Family Is an Example of Which Type of Group Identified by Cooley

The Nature of Groups

A social grouping is two or more humans who interact with ane another, share similar characteristics, and collectively accept a sense of unity.

Learning Objectives

Contrast the social cohesion-based concept of a social group with the social identity concept

Cardinal Takeaways

Central Points

• A social group exhibits some caste of social cohesion and is more than a uncomplicated collection or aggregate of individuals.
• Social cohesion tin be formed through shared interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties, amidst other factors.
• The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient conditions for the formation of social groups is the sensation that an individual belongs and is recognized as a member of a group.
• The social identity approach posits that the necessary and sufficient weather condition for the formation of social groups is the awareness that the private belongs and is recognized as a member of a group.

Key Terms

• social group: A collection of humans or animals that share certain characteristics, collaborate with one another, accept expectations and obligations as members of the group, and share a mutual identity.
• The social identity approach: Posits that the necessary and sufficient condition for the formation of social groups is awareness of a common category membership.
• The social cohesion approach: More than than a uncomplicated drove or amass of individuals, such as people waiting at a coach stop, or people waiting in a line.

In the social sciences, a social group is two or more than humans who interact with one another, share like characteristics, and accept a collective sense of unity. This is a very wide definition, as it includes groups of all sizes, from dyads to whole societies. A club can be viewed as a large group, though most social groups are considerably smaller. Society can as well exist viewed as people who interact with one another, sharing similarities pertaining to culture and territorial boundaries.

A social group exhibits some degree of social cohesion and is more than a simple collection or aggregate of individuals, such as people waiting at a jitney stop or people waiting in a line. Characteristics shared past members of a group may include interests, values, representations, ethnic or social background, and kinship ties. One style of determining if a collection of people tin be considered a group is if individuals who belong to that drove use the self-referent pronoun "we;" using "we" to refer to a collection of people frequently implies that the drove thinks of itself as a grouping. Examples of groups include: families, companies, circles of friends, clubs, local chapters of fraternities and sororities, and local religious congregations.

Renowned social psychologist Muzafer Sherif formulated a technical definition of a social group. Information technology is a social unit consisting of a number of individuals interacting with each other with respect to:

1. mutual motives and goals;
2. an accustomed segmentation of labor;
3. established status relationships;
4. accepted norms and values with reference to matters relevant to the grouping; and
5. the evolution of accustomed sanctions, such every bit raise and penalisation, when norms were respected or violated.

Explicitly contrasted with a social cohesion-based definition for social groups is the social identity perspective, which draws on insights made in social identity theory. The social identity arroyo posits that the necessary and sufficient atmospheric condition for the formation of social groups is "sensation of a common category membership" and that a social group can be "usefully conceptualized equally a number of individuals who have internalized the same social category membership every bit a component of their self concept. " Stated otherwise, while the social cohesion approach expects group members to ask "who am I attracted to? " the social identity perspective expects grouping members to simply inquire "who am I? "

Social Identity Arroyo: The explanatory profiles of social identity and cocky-categorization theories.

Law Enforcement Officials: A law enforcement official is a social category, not a grouping. Withal, law enforcement officials who all work in the same station and regularly meet to plan their mean solar day and work together would exist considered part of a group.

Primary Groups

A main group is typically a modest social grouping whose members share close, personal, enduring relationships.

Learning Objectives

Listing at least three defining characteristics of a primary group

Fundamental Takeaways

Central Points

• Primary groups are marked by business organisation for one another, shared activities and civilisation, and long periods of time spent together. They are psychologically comforting and quite influential in developing personal identity.
• Families and close friends are examples of chief groups.
• The goal of primary groups is actually the relationships themselves rather than achieving another purpose.
• The concept of the master group was introduced by Charles Cooley in his volume, Social Arrangement : A Study of the Larger Mind.

Central Terms

• Shut friends: They are examples of primary groups.
• group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to i another.
• human relationship: Connection or association; the condition of being related.

Sociologists distinguish betwixt two types of groups based upon their characteristics. A master grouping is typically a minor social group whose members share close, personal, indelible relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and civilisation, and long periods of fourth dimension spent together. The goal of primary groups is really the relationships themselves rather than achieving some other purpose. Families and close friends are examples of primary groups.

Charles Cooley

The concept of the primary group was introduced past Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago School of sociology, in his volume Social Organization: A Study of the Larger Mind (1909). Master groups play an of import function in the development of personal identity. Cooley argued that the affect of the master grouping is and then bully that individuals cling to primary ideals in more complex associations and fifty-fifty create new primary groupings inside formal organizations. To that extent, he viewed society as a abiding experiment in enlarging social experience and in coordinating diverseness. He, therefore, analyzed the functioning of such complex social forms every bit formal institutions and social class systems and the subtle controls of public stance.

Functions of Primary Groups

A primary group is a group in which one exchanges implicit items, such as love, caring, concern, support, etc. Examples of these would be family groups, love relationships, crisis back up groups, and church groups. Relationships formed in primary groups are often long lasting and goals in themselves. They also are oft psychologically comforting to the individuals involved and provide a source of support and encouragement.

Charles Cooley: The concept of the primary group was introduced past Charles Cooley, a sociologist from the Chicago School of sociology, in his book, "Social System: A Study of the Larger Heed" (1909).

Families equally Social Groups: This family from the 1970s would be an example of a main grouping.

Secondary Groups

Secondary groups are big groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented; their relationships are temporary.

Learning Objectives

Outline the master distinctions between primary and secondary groups

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• The stardom between primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Cooley. He termed them "secondary" because they generally develop later in life and are much less likely to be influential on one's identity than master groups.
• Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and piffling personal cognition of one another. In contrast to main groups, secondary groups don't have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.
• Secondary groups include groups in which i exchanges explicit commodities, such equally labor for wages, services for payments, and such. They also include academy classes, athletic teams, and groups of co-workers.

Key Terms

• main group: Information technology is typically a minor social group whose members share close, personal, indelible relationships. These groups are marked by concern for one another, shared activities and culture, and long periods of time spent together.
• group: A number of things or persons being in some relation to one another.
• Secondary groups: They are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal-oriented.

Dissimilar showtime groups, secondary groups are large groups whose relationships are impersonal and goal oriented. People in a secondary grouping interact on a less personal level than in a primary group, and their relationships are generally temporary rather than long lasting. Some secondary groups may last for many years, though most are curt term. Such groups as well begin and cease with very little significance in the lives of the people involved.

Secondary relationships involve weak emotional ties and trivial personal knowledge of one another. In contrast to primary groups, secondary groups don't have the goal of maintaining and developing the relationships themselves.

Charles Cooley

The distinction between primary and secondary groups was originally proposed by Charles Cooley. He labeled groups every bit "principal" considering people often experience such groups early in their life and such groups play an important role in the development of personal identity. Secondary groups more often than not develop afterwards in life and are much less likely to be influential on one'due south identity.

Functions

Since secondary groups are established to perform functions, people'south roles are more interchangeable. A secondary group is one you have chosen to be a part of. They are based on interests and activities. They are where many people can meet close friends or people they would just call acquaintances. Secondary groups are as well groups in which one exchanges explicit commodities, such as labor for wages, services for payments, etc. Examples of these would be employment, vendor-to-client relationships, a physician, a mechanic, an accountant, and such. A university class, an able-bodied team, and workers in an office all likely class secondary groups. Primary groups can course within secondary groups as relationships get more than personal and close.

Classmates as Secondary Groups: A class of students is mostly considered a secondary group.

Doctors every bit Secondary Groups: The medico-patient human relationship is some other example of secondary groups.

In-Groups and Out-Groups

In-groups are social groups to which an private feels he or she belongs, while an individual doesn't identify with the out-group.

Learning Objectives

Call up ii of the primal features of in-grouping biases toward out-groups

Cardinal Takeaways

Key Points

• In- grouping favoritism refers to a preference and affinity for one's in-group over the out-grouping, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
• One of the key determinants of group biases is the need to meliorate self-esteem. That is individuals will notice a reason, no matter how insignificant, to prove to themselves why their group is superior.
• Intergroup assailment is any beliefs intended to damage some other person, considering he or she is a member of an out-grouping, the behavior beingness viewed by its targets every bit undesirable.
• The out-group homogeneity effect is one's perception of out-group members as more than similar to one some other than are in-grouping members (eastward.k., "they are alike; we are various").
• Prejudice is a hostile or negative attitude toward people in a distinct group, based solely on their membership within that group.
• A stereotype is a generalization well-nigh a group of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to nigh all members of the group, regardless of bodily variation amid the members.

Fundamental Terms

• in-group bias: It refers to a preference and affinity for 1's in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group.
• Intergroup aggression: It is any behavior intended to harm another person because he or she is a member of an out-group, the behavior being viewed past its targets as undesirable.
• In-group favoritism: It refers to a preference and affinity for one'south in-group over the out-group, or anyone viewed as outside the in-group. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, resource allotment of resource and many other ways.

In sociology and social psychology, in-groups and out-groups are social groups to which an individual feels as though he or she belongs as a member, or towards which they feel contempt, opposition, or a desire to compete, respectively. People tend to concur positive attitudes towards members of their own groups, a phenomenon known as in-group bias. The term originates from social identity theory which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

Henri Tajfel: The in-group and out-group concepts originate from social identity theory, which grew out of the work of social psychologists Henri Tajfel and John Turner.

In-group favoritism refers to a preference and affinity for i's in-group over the out-group or anyone viewed as exterior the in-group. This can be expressed in evaluation of others, linking, allocation of resources, and many other means. A key notion in understanding in-group/out-group biases is determining the psychological mechanism that drives the bias. 1 of the key determinants of group biases is the need to ameliorate self-esteem. That is individuals will observe a reason, no thing how insignificant, to testify to themselves why their grouping is superior.

Intergroup aggression is any behavior intended to damage another person considering he or she is a member of an out group. Intergroup aggression is a by product of in-grouping bias, in that if the beliefs of the in-group are challenged or if the in-group feels threatened, then they will express assailment toward the out-group. The major motive for intergroup aggression is the perception of a conflict of interest between in-grouping and out-grouping. The way the aggression is justified is through dehumanizing the out-grouping, because the more the out-group is dehumanized the "less they deserve the humane handling enjoined by universal norms. "

French Stereotypes: Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization most a grouping of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to about all members of the grouping, regardless of bodily variation among the members.

The out-group homogeneity effect is one's perception of out-grouping members every bit more similar to one another than are in-group members, e.g. "they are alike; we are various. " The out-grouping homogeneity effect has been establish using a wide multifariousness of unlike social groups, from political and racial groups to age and gender groups. Perceivers tend to have impressions near the diversity or variability of group members around those central tendencies or typical attributes of those group members. Thus, out-grouping stereotypicality judgments are overestimated, supporting the view that out-group stereotypes are over-generalizations In an experiment testing out-grouping homogeneity, researchers revealed that people of other races are perceived to look more akin than members of one's ain race. When white students were shown faces of a few white and a few black individuals, they later more accurately recognized white faces they had seen and often falsely recognized blackness faces not seen before. The opposite results were found when subjects consisted of black individuals.

Prejudice is a hostile or negative mental attitude toward people in a distinct group, based solely on their membership inside that group. There are three components. The offset is the affective component, representing both the type of emotion linked with the attitude and the severity of the attitude. The second is a cognitive component, involving behavior and thoughts that brand upwards the mental attitude. The tertiary is a behavioral component, relating to ane's deportment – people practice non simply agree attitudes, they deed on them as well. Prejudice primarily refers to a negative mental attitude most others, although ane can besides accept a positive prejudice in favor of something. Prejudice is similar to stereotype in that a stereotype is a generalization almost a grouping of people in which identical characteristics are assigned to well-nigh all members of the group, regardless of bodily variation amidst the members.

Reference Groups

Sociologists telephone call whatever grouping that individuals utilize every bit a standard for evaluating themselves and their own behavior a reference group.

Learning Objectives

Explicate the purpose of a reference group

Key Takeaways

Cardinal Points

• Social comparison theory argues that individuals utilise comparisons with others to gain accurate self-evaluations and acquire how to ascertain the cocky. A reference group is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or some other group is compared.
• Reference groups provide the benchmarks and dissimilarity needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.
• Robert G. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social role to which the individual aspires.

Key Terms

• self-identity: a multi-dimensional construct that refers to an individual'due south perception of "self" in relation to any number of characteristics, such as academics and not academics, gender roles and sexuality, racial identity,and many others.
• social role: it is a set of continued behaviors, rights, and obligations as conceptualized by actors in a social situation.
• reference group: information technology is a concept referring to a group to which an individual or another group is compared.

Social comparison theory is centered on the belief that there is a bulldoze inside individuals to proceeds accurate self-evaluations. Individuals evaluate their ain opinions and define the self by comparison themselves to others. One important concept in this theory is the reference grouping. A reference group refers to a group to which an individual or another group is compared. Sociologists call any grouping that individuals use equally a standard for evaluating themselves and their own beliefs a reference grouping.

Reference groups are used in guild to evaluate and make up one's mind the nature of a given individual or other group's characteristics and sociological attributes. It is the group to which the individual relates or aspires to chronicle himself or herself psychologically. Reference groups become the private's frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of cocky. It is important for determining a person's self-identity, attitudes, and social ties. These groups become the basis of reference in making comparisons or contrasts and in evaluating one'due south appearance and performance.

Robert K. Merton hypothesized that individuals compare themselves with reference groups of people who occupy the social function to which the individual aspires. Reference groups act as a frame of reference to which people always refer to evaluate their achievements, their role operation, aspirations and ambitions. A reference grouping can either exist from a membership group or non-membership group.

An example of a reference group is a grouping of people who have a certain level of affluence. For example, an individual in the U.Southward. with an annual income of $eighty,000, may consider himself affluent if he compares himself to those in the heart of the income strata, who earn roughly $32,000 a year. If, however, the same person considers the relevant reference grouping to be those in the top 0.one% of households in the U.S., those making $one.6 million or more, then the individual's income of $80,000 would brand him or her seem rather poor.

Reference group: Reference groups provide the benchmarks and dissimilarity needed for comparison and evaluation of group and personal characteristics.

Reference group: Reference groups get the individual's frame of reference and source for ordering his or her experiences, perceptions, cognition, and ideas of self.

Social Networks

A social network is a social structure between actors, connecting them through various social familiarities.

Learning Objectives

Diagram, in miniature, your social networks using nodes and ties

Primal Takeaways

Key Points

• The report of social networks is chosen both "social network assay" and "social network theory ".
• Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the individual actors inside the networks, and ties are the relationships betwixt the actors.
• In sociology, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential handling and cooperation between individuals and groups.
• The dominion of 150 states that the size of a genuine social network is express to about 150 members.
• The minor world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another capricious person anywhere in the globe is generally brusque.
• Milgram as well identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, but with whom i does not interact.
• Milgram likewise identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an private who is recognized from regular activities, simply with whom 1 does not collaborate.

Key Terms

• node: They are the individual actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships between the actors.
• social capital: The skilful will, sympathy, and connections created past social interaction within and between social networks.

A social network is a social construction between actors, either individuals or organizations. Information technology indicates the ways in which they are connected through diverse social familiarities, ranging from casual acquaintance to close familial bonds. The written report of social networks is called both "social network analysis" and "social network theory. " Inquiry in a number of academic fields has demonstrated that social networks operate on many levels, from families up to the level of nations, and play a critical role in determining the manner bug are solved, organizations are run, and the degree to which individuals succeed in achieving their goals. Sociologists are interested in social networks considering of their influence on and importance for the individual. Social networks are the basic tools used by individuals to meet other people, recreate, and to find social support.

Social Network Illustration: An example of a social network diagram

Social network theory views social relationships in terms of nodes and ties. Nodes are the private actors within the networks, and ties are the relationships betwixt the actors. There can be many kinds of ties between the nodes. In its most uncomplicated course, a social network is a map of all of the relevant ties between the nodes being studied. The network tin too be used to decide the social capital of individual actors. In folklore, social capital is the expected collective or economic benefits derived from the preferential treatment and cooperation betwixt individuals and groups.

The dominion of 150 states that the size of a 18-carat social network is limited to about 150 members. The rule arises from cross-cultural studies in sociology and especially anthropology of the maximum size of a village. The small world phenomenon is the hypothesis that the chain of social acquaintances required to connect one arbitrary person to another capricious person anywhere in the world is more often than not short. The concept gave rise to the famous phrase "half dozen degrees of separation" after a 1967 small-scale world experiment by psychologist Stanley Milgram that found that two random U.Southward. citizens were connected by an average of six acquaintances. Milgram also identified the concept of the familiar stranger, or an individual who is recognized from regular activities, just with whom i does not interact. Somebody who is seen daily on the train or at the gym, but with whom one does not otherwise communicate, is an case of a familiar stranger. If such individuals come across in an unfamiliar setting, for example, while travelling, they are more likely to introduce themselves than would perfect strangers, since they accept a background of shared experiences.

Studies

Contempo enquiry suggests that the social networks of Americans are shrinking, and more and more people accept no close confidants or people with whom they can share their most intimate thoughts. In 1985, the mean network size of individuals in the The states was ii.94 people. Networks declined by well-nigh an entire confidant by 2004, to 2.08 people. Almost one-half, 46.3% of Americans, say they accept merely one or no confidants with whom they tin can discuss important matters. The most often occurring response to the question of how many confidants one has was zero in 2004.

Online Communities

On the Internet, social interactions tin occur in online communities that preclude the need to be confront-to-face.

Learning Objectives

Discuss at least three central features of online communities

Key Takeaways

Key Points

• An online customs is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its beingness through taking function in membership rituals.
• An online community can have the form of an data system where anyone can post content, such equally a message board system or one where but a restricted number of people can initiate posts, such as Weblogs.
• Cost plays a role in all aspects and stages for online communities. Fairly cheap and easily attainable technologies and programs have also influenced the increase in establishment of online communities.

Cardinal Terms

• information system: Any information processing organisation, either manual or computerized
• Online communities: It is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership ritual.
• weblog: A website in the class of an ongoing journal; a blog.

An online community is a virtual community that exists online and whose members enable its existence through taking part in membership rituals. An online customs can accept the grade of an information system where anyone can post content, such as a bulletin lath arrangement or i where only a restricted number of people can initiate posts, such as Weblogs. Online communities have also become a supplemental form of communication between people who know each other primarily in existent life. Many ways are used in social software separately or in combination, including text-based conversation rooms and forums that apply voice, video text, or avatars.

The Development of Online Communities

The idea of a community is not a new concept. What is new, however, is transferring it over into the online globe. A community was previously defined every bit a group from a single location. If you lived in the designated expanse, y'all became a office of that community. Interaction between community members was washed primarily face-to-face and in a social setting. This definition for community no longer applies. In the online world, social interactions no longer have to be face-to-face up or based on proximity. Instead, they tin be with literally anyone, anywhere. There is a set of values to consider when developing an online community. Some of these values include: opportunity, education, culture, democracy, human services, equality within the economy, information, sustainability, and communication.

Cost plays a role in all aspects and stages for online communities. Fairly cheap and easily attainable technologies and programs have as well influenced the increase in establishment of online communities. While payment is necessary to participate in some online communities, such as certain dating websites or for monthly game subscriptions, many other sites are gratis to users such as the social networks Facebook and Twitter. Because of deregulation and increased Net admission, the popularity of online communities has escalated. Online communities provide instant gratification, entertainment, and learning.

Building Online Communities

Every online community has a distinct set of members who participate differently. A lurker observes the community and viewing content, merely does non add to the community content or discussion. A novice engages the community, starts to provide content, and tentatively interacts in a few discussions. A regular consistently adds to the community discussion and content and interacts with other users. A leader is recognized as a veteran participant, connecting with regulars to brand higher concepts and ideas. Finally, an elder leaves the community for a variety of reasons. For instance, the elder might experience a alter in interests or lack the time to stay continued.

Studies

In 2001, consultants at McKinsey & Company did a report where they constitute that simply 2% of transaction site customers returned later their first purchase. In contrast, sixty% of new online communities users began using and visiting the sites regularly after their first experiences. Online communities accept changed the game for retail firms, as they have forced them to change their business strategies.

Facebook: While payment is necessary to participate in some online communities, such every bit certain dating websites or for monthly game subscriptions, many other sites are free to users such as social networks Facebook and Twitter.

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